Bibliography

The following bibliography was prepared by Irene Cheng, Charles Davis and Mabel Wilson for the publication Race and Modern Architecture (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2020). It is reproduced here with permission from the publisher.

The following bibliography provides scholars, educators, and students with a list of important primary and secondary texts related to the study of race in architecture. This list is designed to serve as a general introduction. As such, it begins with a list of general references on race theory that is followed by thematic subheadings that expand into various subfields of research in architectural history. We have decided to privilege titles that provide the most valuable analytical frameworks for studying race or primary literatures that provide key examples of this phenomenon in architectural history. 

General: Theory/Background/Method

Ahmed, Sara. “The Phenomenology of Whiteness,” Feminist Theory 8:2 (2011): 149-168.

Alcoff, Linda. The Future of Whiteness. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2016.

Alexander, Michelle. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: New Press , 2010.

Augstein, Hannah Franziska, ed. Race: The Origins of an Idea, 1760-1850. Bristol, England: Thoemmes Press, 1996.

Back, Les, and John Solomos, eds. Theories of Race and Racism: A Reader. London; New York: Routledge, 2000.

Balibar, Ètienne and Immanuel Wallerstein. Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities, trans. Chris Turner. London; New York: Verso, 1991.

Barrett, Lindon W. Racial Blackness and the Discontinuity of Western Modernity, Urbana, IL.: University of Illinois Press, 2014.

Barton, Craig E., ed. Sites of Memory: Perspectives on Architecture and Race. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2001.

Barzun, Jacques. “Race and the Fine Arts.” In Race: A Study in Modern Superstition, 110-134. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 1937.

Baydar, Gülsüm. “The Cultural Burden of Architecture,” Journal of Architectural Education 57:4 (2004): 19-27.

Beckert, Sven. Empire of Cotton: A Global History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014.

Berger, Martin A. Sight Unseen: Whiteness and American Visual Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.

Bernasconi, Robert and Lott, Tommy (eds.). The Idea of Race. Indianapolis; Cambridge: Hackett, 2000.

Chakrabarty, Dipesh. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.

Crenshaw, Kimberlé, ed. Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement. New York: New Press, 1995.

da Silva, Denise Ferreira. Toward a Global Idea of Race. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007.

Delgado, Richard, and Jean Stefancic. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. New York: New York University Press, 2001.

Du Bois, W. E. B. Black Reconstruction in America. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1935.

______. The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

______. "The Conservation of the Races" (1897) Eigen, Sara and Larrimore, Mark (eds.). The German Invention of Race. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2006.

Fields, Darell Wayne. Architecture in Black: Theory, Space and Appearance. London; New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015.

Fredrickson, George M. Racism: A Short History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.

Gates, Henry Louis, and Anthony Appiah, eds. “Race,” Writing and Difference. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1986.

Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. London ; New York: Verso, 1993.

Harney, Stefano, and Fred Moten. The Undercommons: Fugitive Planning & Black Study. Wivenhoe ; New York ; Port Watson: Minor Compositions, 2013.

Harris, Cheryl. “Whiteness as Property.” Harvard Law Review, vol. 106, no. 8 (June 1993): 1707-1791.

Hartmann, Saidiya. Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Horsman, Reginald. Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981.

Johnson, Walter. River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom. Belknap Press, 2013.

Kim, Claire Jean. “The Racial Triangulation of Asian Americans,” Politics & Society, vol.27, no.1 (March 1999): 105-138.

Lipsitz, George. How Racism Takes Place. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011.

______. The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White Peopleprofit from Identity Politics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998.

Lokko, Lesley Naa Norle, and Araya Asgedom, eds. White Papers, Black Marks: Architecture, Race, Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000.

Lowe, Lisa, Intimacies of Four Continents, Durham: Duke, 2015.

Lott, Tommy Lee, and John P. Pittman, eds. A Companion to African-American Philosophy. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2003.

Mignolo, Walter. Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges, and Border Thinking. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.

______. The Darker Side of the Renaissance: Literacy, Territoriality, and Colonization. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995.

Mills, Charles W. The Racial Contract, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1997.

Morrison, Toni. Playing In The Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. New York: Vintage Books, 1992.

Omi, Michael and Howard Winant. Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s. New York and London: Routledge, 1994.

Painter, Nell Irvin. The History of White People. New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 2010.

Robinson, Cedric J. Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition. London : Totowa, N.J: Zed , 1983.

Roediger, David. Colored White: Transcending the Racial Past. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

Saldanha, Arun. “Reontologising Race: the Machinic Geography of Phenotype.” Environment & Planning D: Society and Space, vol 24 (2006), 9-24.

Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage, 1993.

______. Orientalism. New York: Vintage, 1979.

Spillers, Hortense. “Mamas Baby, Papa’s Maybe: An American Grammar Book,” Diacritics, Vol. 17 no. 2, (Summer, 1987): 64 - 81.

Spivak, Gayatri. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” In Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, 271-313.

Stocking, Jr., George W. “The Spaces of Cultural Representation: Reflections on Museum Arrangement and Anthropological Theory in the Boasian and Evolutionary Traditions.” In The Architecture of Science, ed. Peter Galison and Emily Thompson. Cambridge, MA; London: MIT Press, 1999, 165-180. 

Valls, Andrew, ed. Race and Modern Philosophy. Ithaca: Cornell University, 2005. 

West, Cornel. “A Note On Race and Architecture.” In Keeping Faith: Philosophy and Race in America, 45-54. New York: Routledge, 1993.

Sylvia Wynter, “Unsettling the Coloniality of Being/Power/Truth/Freedom: Towards the Human, After Man, Its Overrepresentation—An Argument,” CR: The New Centennial Review, vol. 3, no. 3, (Fall 1993): 263–4.

Race and Enlightenment

Anthony, Carl. "The Big House and the Slave Quarters: Part I, Prelude to New World Architecture." Landscape 20, no. 3 (Spring 1976): 8-19.

———.  "The Big House and the Slave Quarters: Part II, African Contributions to the New World." Landscape 21, no. 1 (Autumn 1976): 9-15.

———. The Big House and the Slave Quarter: Prelude to New World Architecture. University of California. Berkeley. Dept. of Architecture.Working Paper 3. Berkeley, Calif, 1975.

Baucom, Ian. Specters of the Atlantic: Finance Capital, Slavery, and the Philosophy of History. Durham: Duke University Press, 2005.

Bindman, David. Ape to Apollo: Aesthetics and the Idea of Race in the 18th Century. London: Reaktion, 2002.

Buck-Morss, Susan. Hegel, Haiti and Universal History. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2009.

Cairns, Stephen. “Notes for an Alternative History of the Primitive Hut.” In Primitive: Original Matters in Architecture. Ed. Jo Odgers, Flora Samuel and Adam Sharr. London and New York: Routledge, 2006.

Cheng, Irene. “Race and Architectural Geometry: Thomas Jefferson's Octagons." The Journal of Nineteenth-Century Americanists 3, no. 1 (2015): 121-30.

Ellis, Clifton, and Rebecca Ginsburg, eds. Cabin, Quarter, Plantation: Architecture and Landscapes of North American Slavery. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010.

Eze, Emmanuel Chukwudi, ed. Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader. Cambridge: Blackwell, 1997.

———. On Reason: Rationality in a World of Cultural Conflict and Racism. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2008.

Gikandi, Simon. Slavery and the Culture of Taste. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011.

Muthu, Sankar. Enlightenment against Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press,  2003.

Nelson, Louis. Architecture and Empire in Jamaica. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016.

———. “The Architectures of Black Identity: Buildings, Slavery and Freedom in the Caribbean and the American South,” Winterthur Portfolio 45, no. 2/3 (2011): 177-93.

———. “Architectures of West African Enslavement,” Buildings & Landscapes 21, no. 1 (Spring 2014): 88-124.

Quatremère de Quincy, Antoine-Chrysostome. “Architecture" and "Character" (1788). 9H no. 7 (1985): 25-35.

Upton, Dell. "White and Black Landscapes in Eighteenth-Century Virginia." Places, vol. 2, no. 2 (1984): 59-72.

Wright, Gwendolyn. “The 'Big House' and the Slave Quarters.” In Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America. New York: Pantheon Books, 1981, 41-57.

Vlach, John Michael. Back of the Big House: The Architecture of Plantation Slavery. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993.

______. “The Shotgun House: An African Architectural Legacy.” Common Places: Readings in American Vernacular Architecture, edited by Dell Upton and John Michael Vlach, 58-78. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1986.

Race and Organicism

“Anthological Excerpts from Gottfried Semper to Henri Focillon.” Rassegna 12, no. 41 (1990): 76-89.

Baridon, Laurent. L’imaginaire scientifique de Viollet-le-Duc. Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 1996.

Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich. On the Natural Varieties of Mankind (1776)

Bressani, Martin. Architecture and the Historical Imagination: Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-Le-Duc, 1814-1879. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, 2014.

Canales, Jimena, and Andrew Herscher. "Criminal Skins: Tattoos and Modern Architecture in the Work of Adolf Loos." Architectural History 48 (2005): 235-56.

Cogdell, Christina. “Breeding Ideology: Parametricism and Biological Architecture,” The Politics of Parametricism: Digital Technologies in Architecture, edited by Matthew Poole and Manuel Shvartzberg. London; New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015, 123-137. 

———. Eugenic Design: Streamlining America in the 1930s. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004.

Davis II, Charles L. Building Character: The Racial Politics of Modern Architectural Style. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2019.

______. “Louis Sullivan and the Physiognomic Translation of American Character,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 76, No. 1 (March 2017): 63-81.

———. “Viollet-Le-Duc and the Body: The Metaphorical Integrations of Race and Style in Structural Rationalism.” Architectural Research Quarterly 14, no. 4 (2010): 341-48.

Gubler, Jacques. “In Search of the Primitive,” Viollet-le-Duc, Architectural Design Profile. London: Academy Editions, 1980.

Loos, Adolf. "Plumbers" (1898)" and "Ornament and Crime" (1908/1929). In Ornament and Crime: Selected Essays, translated by Michael Mitchell; edited by Adolf Opel, 82-88, 167-176. Riverside, CA: Ariadne Press, 1998. "Architecture" (1910) in On Architecture, translated by Michael Mitchell; edited by Adolf and Daniel Opel, 73-85. Riverside, CA: Ariadne Press, 2002.

Mallgrave, Harry Francis. “Gustav Klemm and Gottfried Semper: The Meeting of Ethnological and Architectural Theory.” RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 9 (1985): 68-79.

Merwood, Joanna. “Western Architecture: Regionalism and Race in the Inland Architect.” In Chicago Architecture: Histories, Revisions, Alternatives, edited by Katerina Rüedi-Ray and Charles Waldheim, 3-14. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.

Mitchell, Timothy. “Orientalism and the Exhibitionary Order.” In Colonialism and Culture, edited by Nicholas Dirks. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992, 289 - 318.

Mitchell, W. J. T., ed. “Imperial Landscape,” in Landscape and Power. 2nd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002, 5-30.

Semper, Gottfried. “The Four Elements of Architecture: A Contribution to the Comparative Study of Architecture” (1851). The Four Elements of Architecture and Other Writings, translated by Harry Francis Mallgrave and Wolfgang Herrmann, 74-129. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Sullivan, Louis. "Characteristics and Tendencies of an American Architecture" (1885).   In Kindergarten Chats and Other Writings, edited by Isabella Athey, 177-181. New York: Wittenborn, Schultz, 1947.

Teyssot, Georges. A Topology of Everyday Constellations. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2013. 

Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène-Emmanuel. The Habitations of Man in All Ages (Histoire de l'habitation humaine, depuis les temps préhistoriques jusqu'à nos jours). Translated by Benjamin Bucknall. Boston: J. R. Osgood & Co., 1876 (1875).

Race and Nationalism

Arthurs, Joshua. “Empire, Race and the Decline of Romanità, 1936-1945.” In Excavating Modernity: The Roman Past in Fascist Italy, 125-50, 187-94. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2012.

Etlin, Richard. “Italian Rationalism and Anti-Semitism.” In Modernism in Italian Architecture, 569-97, 670-78. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1991.

Gillette, Aaron. “The Implementation of Nordic Racism in Italy, 1936-1938.” In Racial Theories in Fascist Italy, 50-99, 197-207. London and New York: Routledge, 2002.

Knight, Alan. “Racism, Revolution, and Indigenismo: Mexico, 1910-1940.” In The Idea of Race in Latin  America, 1870-1940, edited by Richard Graham, 71-113. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990.

Horsman, Reginald. Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981.

Lane, Barbara Miller. Architecture and Politics in Germany, 1918-1945. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985.

O'Connell, Lauren M. "A Rational, National Architecture: Viollet-le-Duc's Modest Proposal for Russia." The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 52, no. 4 (1993): 436-52.

Poliakov, Léon. The Aryan Myth, trans. Edmund Howard. London: Sussex University Press, 1974. 

Race and Colonialism

Avermaete, Tom, Serhat Karakayali, and Marion von Osten, eds. Colonial Modern: Aesthetics of the Past--Rebellions for the Future. London: Black Dog, 2010.

Akcan, Esra. "Postcolonial Theories in Architecture." In A Critical History of Contemporary Architecture (1960-2010), edited by Elie Haddad and David Rifkind, 115-136. London: Ashgate, 2014.

Avermaete, Tom. "Framing the Afropolis: Michel Ecochard and the African City for the Greatest Number." OASE no. 82 (2010): 77-99.

Baydar, Gülsüm and Nalbantoḡlu, "Toward Postcolonial Openings: Rereading Sir Banister Fletcher's "History of Architecture." Assemblage 35 (1998): 6-17.

Bennett, Tony. “The Exhibitionary Complex” New Formations 4 (Spring 1988). 

Bremner, G. A., ed. Architecture and Urbanism in the British Empire. Oxford; New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2016.

Çelik, Zeynep. Displaying the Orient: Architecture of Islam at Nineteenth-Century World’s Fairs. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.

———. Empire, Architecture, and the City: French-Ottoman Encounters, 1830-1914. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008.

———. Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers under French Rule. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997.

Césaire, Aimé. Discourse on Colonialism. New York: MR, 1972. 

Chattopadhyay, Swati.  "Blurring Boundaries: The Limits of 'White Town' in Colonial Calcutta." The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 59, no. 2 (June, 2000): 154-179.

Coetzer, Nicholas. Building Apartheid: On Architecture and Order in Imperial Cape Town. Ashgate, 2013.Crane, Sheila. “The Shantytown in Algiers and the Colonization of Everyday Life,” in Kenny Cupers (ed.), 103-119. Use Matters: An Alternative History of Architecture, London; New York: Routledge, 2013.

Crinson, Mark. Empire Building: Orientalism and Victorian Architecture. London; New York: Routledge, 1996.

Fanon, Frantz. Black Skin, White Masks. New York and Berkeley, CA: Grove Press , 2008.

———. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press, 1963.

Fry, Maxwell and Jane Drew. “Introduction” and “Climate.” In Tropical Architecture in the Dry and  Humid Zones, 17-25. Huntington, NY: R. E. Krieger, 1964.

Glover, Will. Making Lahore Modern: Constructing and Imagining a Colonial City. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007.

Göckede, Regina. “The Architect as Colonial Technocrat of Dependent Modernisation: Ernst May's Plans for Kampala”: In Afropolis - City Media Art, edited by Kerstin Pinther, Larissa Forster, and Christian Hanussek, 54-65. Auckland Park: Jacana Media, 2012.

Guha-Thakurta, Tapati. Monuments, Objects, Histories: Institutions of Art in Colonial and Postcolonial India. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.

Jaschke, Karin. “Mythopoesis of Place and Culture: Aldo Van Eyck, Herman Haan, and the Dogon.” In Team 10 : Keeping the Language of Modern Architecture Alive, edited by Pablo Allard, 110-125. Delft: Delft University, 2006. 

Liscombe, Rhodri Windsor, “Modernism in Late Imperial British West Africa: The Work of Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, 1946-56.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 65, no. 2 (2006): 188-215.

Mbembe, Achille. Necropolitics. Durham: Duke University Press Books, 2019.

———. Critique of Black Reason. Trans. Laurent Dubois. Durham: Duke University Press, 2017.

Meier, Prita. Swahili Port Cities: The Architecture of Elsewhere. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2016.

Metcalf, Thomas R. An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and Britain’s Raj. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.

Morton, Patricia A. Hybrid Modernities: Representation and Architecture at the 1931 International Colonial Exposition in Paris. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000.

Osayimwese, Itohan. Colonialism and Modern Architecture in Germany. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2017.

Rydell, Robert. All the World’s a Fair: Visions of Empire at the American International Expositions, 1876-1916. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.

Silverman, Debora L. “Art Nouveau, Art of Darkness: African Lineages of Belgian Modernism.” West 86th: A Journal of Decorative Arts, Design History, and Material Culture 18:2 (2011): 139-181. 

Wright, Gwendolyn. The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.

Race and Representation

Brown, Adrienne. The Black Skyscraper: Architecture and the Perception of Race. John Hopkins University Press, 2017.

Cheng, Anne. Second Skin: Josephine Baker and the Modern Surface. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Gleason, William. Sites Unseen: Architecture, Race, and American Literature. New York: New York University Press, 2011.

Gooden, Mario. Dark Space: Architecture, Representation, Black Identity. New York: Columbia Books on Architecture and the City, 2016.

Harris, Dianne. Little White Houses: How the Postwar Home Constructed Race in  America, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013.

______. “Seeing the Invisible: Reexamining Race and Vernacular Architecture.” Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture 13, no. 2 (2006-7): 96-105.

hooks, bell. “Black Vernacular: Architecture as Cultural Practice,” in Art on My Mind: Visual Politics. New York: New Press, 1995, 145-151. 

Savage, Kirk. Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race, War, and Monument in Nineteenth-Century America (Princeton University Press, 1999).

Sheehan, Tanya. “Comical Conflations: Racial Identity and the Science of Photography.” Photography & Culture, vol. 4, no. 2 (July 2011): 133-155.Sheehan, Tanya. “Comical Conflations: Racial Identity and the Science of Photography.” Photography & Culture, vol. 4, no. 2 (July 2011): 133-155.

______. “Looking Pleasant, Feeling White: The Social Politics of the Photographic Smile.” In Feeling Photography, edited by Elspeth Brown and Thy Phu, 127-157. Durham: Duke University Press, 2014.

Upton, Dell. What Can and Can’t Be Said: Race, Uplift, and Monument Building in the Contemporary South. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015.

Wilkins, Craig L. The Aesthetics of Equity: Notes on Race, Space, Architecture, and Music. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007.

Wilson, Mabel. “Dancing in the Dark: The Inscription of Blackness in Le Corbusier's Radiant City.” In Places Through the Body, edited by Heidi J. Nast and Steve Pile, 133-152. New York: Routledge, 1998.

______. Negro Building: Black Americans in the World of Fairs and Museums. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012.

Race and Urbanism

Barron, Mark. “Adequately Re-Housing Low Income Families: A Study of Class and Race in the Architecture of Public Housing, Marietta, Georgia, 1938-1941.” Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture, vol. 11 (2004): 54-70.

Bristol, Katharine. “The Pruitt Igoe Myth,” Journal of Architectural Education, vol.44, no.3 (1991): 163-171.

Brown, Adrienne and Valerie Smith. Race and Real Estate. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.

Coates, Ta-Nehisi. "The Case For Reparations." The Atlantic, June 2014.

Connolly, N. D. B. A World More Concrete: Real Estate and the Remaking of Jim Crow South FLorida. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2014.

Drake, St. Claire and Clayton, Horace. Black Metropolis: a Study of Negro Life in a Northern City. Harcourt, Brace & Company, 1945.

Freund, David M. P.  Colored Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2007.

Goldstein, Brian D. The Roots of Urban Renaissance: Gentrification and the Struggle Over Harlem (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017).

Gutman, Marta. “Race, Place and Play: Robert Moses and the WPA Swimming Pools in New York City,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 67, no. 4 (December 2008): 532-561.

Hock, Jennifer. “Bulldozers, Busing and Boycotts: Urban Renewal and the Integrationist Project.” Journal of Urban History, vol. 39, no. 3 (May 2013): 433-453.

Hunter, Marcus Anthony, Mary Pattillo, Zandria F. Robinson, and Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor. “Black Placemaking: Celebration, Play, and Poetry.” Theory, Culture & Society 33, no. 7–8 (December 1, 2016): 31–56.

Judin, Hilton and Ivan Vladislavić, eds. Blank ‒: Architecture, Apartheid and After. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 1998.

Knoblauch, Joy. “Defensible Space and the Open Society.” Aggregate, http://we-aggregate.org/piece/defensible-space-and-the-open-society.

Kurgan, Laura. “Million-Dollar Blocks.” In Close Up at a Distance: Mapping, Technology, and Politics. New York: Zone Books, 2013.

Lasner, Matthew Gordon. “Segregation by Design: Race, Architecture, and the Enclosure of the Atlanta Apartment,” Journal of Urban History, May 2017. doi:10.1177/0096144217704316.

Le Corbusier. When the Cathedrals Were White, translated by Francis Hyslop, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964 (1947).

Lipsitz, George. “The Racialization of Space and the Spatialization of Race: Theorizing the Hidden Architecture of Landscape.” Landscape Journal, vol. 26, no. 1 (2007): 10-23.

Massey, Douglas S. and Nancy A. Denton. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.

Nemser, Daniel. Infrastructures of Race: Concentration and Biopolitics in Colonial Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2017. 

Nightingale, Carl H. Segregation: A Global History of Divided Cities. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2012.

Park, Robert Ezra, Ernest W. Burgess and Roderick D. McKenzie. "The City" (1915) In The City, 1-46. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925.

Rothstein, Richard. The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. New York: Liveright Publishing Company, 2017.

Schein, Richard, ed. Landscape and Race in the United States. London; New York: Routledge, 2006.

Shabazz, Rashad. Spatializing Blackness: Architectures of Confinement and Black Masculinity in Chicago. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015.

Shah, Nayan. Contagious Divides: Epidemics of Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.

Wiltse, Jeff. Contested Waters: A Social History of Swimming Pools in America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.